Slavery Is Not Extinct Slavery - 1904 Words

Hemberry 1 Nataleigh Hemberry Honors English 10 Period Seven 10 March, 2016 Slavery Is Not Extinct Slavery, the keeping of slaves as a practice or institution, has held a grim but important role in America’s history. Since the founding of the United States, slavery has been a moral and human rights issue that citizens have argued over to the point of war. To most Americans, the day slavery ended was January 1st, 1863-the day President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and freed all slaves within America’s borders. However slavery never did end-and is in fact at an all time high as of 2016. Despite the ban on slavery over one hundred and fifty years ago, slavery and human trafficking,especially for sexual exploitation, are still an issue and still exist in the United States. Slavery, as aforementioned, is the keeping of slaves as a practice or institution, but what many do not know about that goes hand in hand with slavery is human trafficking-the illegal transportation of humans for forced labor or sexual exploitation. Traffickers nowadays are often pimps-men who control prostitutes and arrange clients for them (while keeping profit for themselves), or just that-traffickers who buy and sell women, children, and even men to pimps and handlers globally. One hundred and fifty three years ago amidst a civil war, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation, stating that: Hemberry 2 ...any and all persons held as slavesShow MoreRelatedSlavery Is Not Extinct : Slavery1562 Words   |  7 Pages Slavery Is Not Extinct Slavery, the keeping of slaves as a practice or institution, has held a grim but important role in America’s history. Since the founding of the United States, slavery has been a moral and human rights issue that citizens have argued over to the point of war. To most Americans, the day slavery ended was January 1st, 1863-the day President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and freed all slaves within America’s borders. However slavery never did end-andRead MoreSlavery Is Not Extinct : Slavery1905 Words   |  8 PagesMarch, 2016 Slavery Is Not Extinct Slavery, the keeping of slaves as a practice or institution, has held a grim but important role in America’s history. Since the founding of the United States, slavery has been a moral and human rights issue that citizens have argued over to the point of war. To most Americans, the day slavery ended was January 1st, 1863-the day President Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation and freed all slaves within America’s borders. However slavery never did end-andRead MoreSlavery On The Islands Of The Caribbean890 Words   |  4 PagesSlavery has existed throughout history and has yet to become fully extinct. Slavery is when someone else (human) has ownership of another human. In the ancient world slavery was very popular and not perceived as something wrong. The main source of slaves was prisoners of war. Slavery become a cycle, a slave’s children also became slaves and so on, it was hereditary. Some people sold their children or themselves into slavery to escape starvation. As society became more advanced, slavery became a hugeRead MoreEssay about The Injustice of Slavery: A Peoples Resistance870 Words   |  4 Pages The Injustice of Slavery: A people’s resistance nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The history of the United States is filled to the brim with an abundance of significant events. Over the course of this nation’s young history there have been numerous social institutions. Many have been a necessity in our development. However, the US was home to one of the greatest atrocities committed on mankind. The institution of slavery is not only the most embarrassing but most sever infraction on the natural rightsRead MoreThe Civil War Of The United States1270 Words   |  6 Pagesbecome divided down the middle over slavery, a mainstay that helped the economic growth of this country? As the northern states population grew and expanded westward their anti-slavery beliefs began to spread faster than the pro-slavery beliefs of the southern plantation owners. This influx of an anti-slavery population began to use the senate as a platform to question the use of slavery, causing the southern elitists to strengthen their defenses in support of slav ery. Many southerners feared theirRead MoreMississippi History: Indian Removal Act, 13th Amendment, and Reverend George Lee655 Words   |  3 Pageschanges, and writers. Indian Act Removal Act, 13th Amendment, and Reverend George Lee played a big impact Mississippi current status. The Removals of Indians increased the Europeans power and lessened the Indian population. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery. Reverend George Lee was shot down for urging blacks to vote. All these contributed to Mississippi History. The Indian Removal Act was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830. The act authorized him to negotiate with the NativeRead MoreA Fundamental Rule Of Networks1093 Words   |  5 Pagesnew crops in different climates. Crops like wheat came from Europe and spread through the America’s and domestic animals like pigs, cattle, and horses. This shift in landscape was eminent in the Caribbean islands, where many indigenous animals went extinct along with the native people of the Island. Pigs, rats, sugarcane , coffee, and slave populations became the new inhabitants of the Caribbeans. The Columbian exchange influenced a networking world and simulated global commerce.Many of the world’sRead MoreThe Legacy Of Abraham Lincoln s Presidency1589 Words   |  7 PagesCivil War. During this time, slavery was one of, if not the top main issue in the United States. Lincoln was very outspoken on his views of slavery, what he wanted to happen, and what he did not want to happen with the institution. One of the main points that Lincoln makes throughout his series of speeches and letters is that slavery is in fact a moral issue. He describes slavery as a social, moral and political wrong, and places a large emphasis on the morality of slavery. Lincoln describes his beliefsRead MoreDefending Slavery1997 Words   |  8 PagesCritical Analysis on Defending Slavery, Finkelman Paul Defending slavery demonstrate the opinions and knowledge that the Southerners held concerning blacks and slavery. Paul Finkelman talks about slave legitimacy in colonial America. He argues that the first defense of slavery became visible after the end of American Revolution; it attempted to justify continuous forced labor with the Declaration of Independence. This essay aims at critically analyzing ideologies and racial theories that SouthernersRead MoreThe Murder Of Robbery Of A Jewelry Store Essay1116 Words   |  5 Pagesyoung lawyers like you willing to watch us boring old men argue. May I ask your name?† â€Å"William Wade, sir, Norse for traveler. Do you reckon you might have any free time? I’ve heard you enjoy debating, and I’d like to practice. On the topic of slavery.† He said bluntly, like it is casual conversation. I was surprised to find myself considering it. It really was not a subject I felt strongly about. I always assumed there was just nothing to be done about it, the South wanted their slaves, I did

Payroll Accounting Essay Example For Students

Payroll Accounting Essay Writing assignment for Payroll Accounting The way this course has made me a stronger candidate to enter the business world is by the knowledge that I have received from this course. It has taught me a lot of different key concepts as well as topics pertaining to Payroll accounting. Furthermore, this course has affected me in my professional development as a student and as a person as well as encouraged me on my academic path. The subjects that were covered in this course as well as different projects that were assigned to the students made it fun to learn and get a better understanding of the course. This course has broadened my horizons into payroll accounting on a level that was unknown to me before. All the steps involved in payroll accounting such as taxes, salaries, exemptions and expenses helped me understand how to produce a proper paycheck for the employees. Payroll Accounting has made me a stronger candidate to enter the business world. Looking at the course material covered in payroll accounting, there are many steps to making a proper paycheck. Every step in such profession is crucial because it is important to understand the material and make sure that there are no mistakes made when entering an employee’s information to create a paycheck . This course has taught me of all the necessary deductions that each employee receives when he/she is employed by a company. However, not only the employees pay taxes, it is also the employer that pays taxes on the employees that are employed by the company. This course has elaborated on many interesting and yet knowledgeable information that made me change my mind about who I want to be in the future. This course has affected me in my professional development as a student and as a person as well as encouraged me on my academic path. This course made me realize that payroll accounting isn’t something that can be taken lightly because it affects other people’s lives and their livelihoods that depend on their paychecks to continue supporting their families, their selves and their future. It also made me realize from an academic prospective, that there are many different types of taxes, exemptions, expenses, etc. that may differ from state to state and that may differ from company to company. Knowing these differences can make or break your career. Therefore, having these things in mind it makes me as a person more competent, more detail oriented and responsible because it’s not just my job that is at stake but also the livelihood of others. In conclusion, looking back at all the things mentioned this course has made me a stronger candidate as well as affected my professional outlook in a way that has made me a better and more responsible person. This course has also helped me learn and understand key concepts and topics that will help me build my career on the knowledge that was received from such course. I’m grateful for having to take this course because it helped me learn a lot of things that will definitely be useful to me in my career and the business world.

Road to revolution free essay sample

The Sugar Act of 1764 was eased when the British asked Colonists to pay 3 cents tax on sugar. The British didnt even ask permission from the Colonists when doing this. The Colonists hated being controlled by the British government. The Stamp Act of 1765 was made when all newspapers, documents, etc. Have a British seal/stamp on them, which cosseted money (this was an easier way for British government to get money). The Colonists were very angry so they revolted against the government and decided to write a response about the Stamp Act to the British Parliament.Quartering Act of 1765 when Colonists had to provide food and shelter to British troops. The Declaratory Act of 1766 this law was passed to stop the Colonists from forming their own government. The Townsend Act of 1767 was when Britain raised taxes on glass, paint, oil, lead, paper, and tea. The Boston Massacre was the street fight that occurred when Colonists were throwing snowballs at a building and a mob of patriots came to stop them and someone yelled fire when the patriots started to kill many Colonists on that street. We will write a custom essay sample on Road to revolution or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Boston Tea Party of 1773 was when Colonists refused to pay for tea and didnt help take it off the ships and instead threw the tea overboard into the water. The Intolerable Act was when the Parliament closed the British Harbor until the Colonists paid for the destroyed tea. The Boston economy was based on trade and soon people were loosing their Jobs. So, Colonists decided to help them (Colonists who went with Boston were known as Patriots and the ones who stayed with Britain were known as Loyalists).The 1st Continental Congress of 1774 was when the 13 loonies (56 delegates) came together in the Philadelphia Hall where they discussed the issues relating to the liberty and rights of the Colonies (for the first time all colonies are working together). They eventually decide that the British Parliament that they dont have the right to pass laws for the Colonists. The Lexington Concord of 1775 was when Paul Revere went to get more soldiers in the militia for the Americans. The British thought that the American colonists were storing heavy weaponry.So, the British went to Lexington to stop them and so a few colonists were ailed. The 2nd Continental Congress of 1775 was when the 13 colonies tried to manage war effort and slowly moving towards independence, making the Declaration of Independence. The Continental Congress progressed on their efforts, which then brought about a national government, which became the United States of America. Thomas Paine: was a writer who published the book Common Sense. This book was to inform Colonists about the thoughts on questioning the British Parliament.He became friends with Benjamin Franklin who told him to go to America. The Declaration of Independence of 1776 is for the freedom of many English colonists in America. The authors who created and came up with the laws was: Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson. Battle of Yorktown: this war occurred after the signing of the Declaration of Independence. This document officially ended the war between the Americans, British, and French at Yorktown, Virginia. The Treaty of Paris: Officially ended all of war. The French recognized America as its own independent nation. Road To Revolution free essay sample Writs of Assistance search any home they 1760 orders from goods. Wanted to. Not court that allow individual writs like customs officers warrants. To conduct general searches for contraband. During the French and Indian war. Colonist lost family Resentment, and colonists were not members; risking their they crossed into appreciative and Proclamation of lives to win the war, the Ohio Valley regarded new policies videotaped warfare anyway. Between the Indians, Resulted in warfare acknowledged tit Natives. T that Indians Reaction was owned lands, immediate and which they understandably were residing negative and white men were removed from the area Sugar Act 1764 -Refined sugar imported by the colonies Taxed all luxury items like silk, and molasses. SST Committee of Correspondence in Mass. Boston experimented with Boycotts No taxation without representation Colonist were angry by sugar act and many smuggled molasses in. Northern colon sees organized protest and other colonies warned royal governors that tax was unfair. We will write a custom essay sample on Road To Revolution or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Currency Act 1764 Colonies suffered contain souse shortage of cue reentry which affected trading. Stamp Act 1 765 Law that taxed all printed paper items such as newspaper Quartering Acts 1765- two acts of the British parliament in the 18th century. The colony issued bills Prevailed the mercantile of credit, a form of system, providing cheap paper money that was raw materials for the mother country Smoldering resentment backed by anticipated tax collections. Required colonists to pay taxes on all printed papers. Required colonists to shelter and feed decodes. The colonists acted out Petitions to the King with violence because to control Parliament. They thought that all these taxation were Boycotts, massive violence. Creation of unfair. Everyone was the Sons of Liberty. Affected, everyone buys newspapers The colonists feared that Parliament wanted to Protests in colonial use the troops to control Assemblies. Petitions the movement and their to the KING freedom. Protests started to slow down, Ben Franklin Repeal of Stamp Act 1767- Was repealed because Of boycotts Declaratory ActSame day as above- Parliaments response to repeal of the Stamp Act Townsend Duties 1767 indirect taxes on tea, glass, paint. Voted to repeal the Stamp Acting March 1766. On the same day as the Parliament passed the Declaratory Acts, asserting that the British government had free and total legislative power over the colonies. Parliament proclaimed that they did have the right to tax colonies Law taxing items like tea, glass, paint, lead. Will pay for vice admiralty courts, and debt. Enforcing trade laws; Rejoicing Violently opposed.

Activity and Disengagement theory Essays

Activity and Disengagement theory Essays Activity and Disengagement theory Paper Activity and Disengagement theory Paper Looking at the activity theory, each practice persuades elderly to stay active by proving them with activities such as bingo, quizzes, physical activities, music and sensory activates. I believe from this the practice will be able to ensure that elderly people stay active. This theory relates to the practice because people in this practice have retired, however they still have other things to keep them entertained. Living in this practice will make them become part of the community there. This will make them stay involved with others. The practice will promote and prolong their activities. They will make sure that their clients maintain their relationship with the family and friends. However there are some with physical disabilities, mental health disabilities or learning disabilities who may not be able to participate in those activities. This theory convinces others to participate and to keep fit; however there can be times were keeping all clients fit becomes difficult. There are residents who may disengage themselves in the health and social care setting. This could be because they may have physical or learning disability which may make them unable to take part. There are some resident who choose not to get involved, not to take part in the services or activities available with the rest and to stay alone wanting to disengage themselves. People should respect their views as this is part of the Human Rights. The disengagement theory can also relate to health and social care settings if the setting doesnt have enough money to provide with such services and activities. This will not provide with appropriate facilities and resident may disengage themselves because of that. I have found that people who are lonely are twice as likely to develop Alzheimers disease, a large US study has suggested. This means that more people die from loneliness than diseases as I found from my research. So if the care setting doesnt provide with activities and make sure that each client is well aware of those services they can take part in, then it will make them feel lonely and they may be at a high risk of developing Alzheimer. This theory can influence some of the client to forget about their family and friends and just to wait for the rest of their lives. However other clients may find it wrong and always keep in mind not to let the disengagement influence them in the setting. Evaluate he nature-nurture debate in relation to the development of the individual. Nature is what we are born with and inherited. This is things like the way we are and our DNA. However nurture is what influences us from outside such as society determine who you are. It is more about what a person is like due to the environment they are in. I have looked at a debate on nature vs. nurture on gay people. It showed the following questions. Are people made or born gay? Are we all straight until our environment or some traumatic event makes us gay or have we indeed had gay feelings for as long as we can remember? Some of the article is shown below. I was born gay! You cant make someone gay no more than you can make someone straight. Of course environmental factors affect our sexuality. You just cant generalize these types of things. Ultimately what you end up doing is trying to figure out how to stop it like its a disease or somethinginstead of trying to help people ACCEPT themselves for who they are and help nurture them into healthy relationships. I was made gay! Might any of these factors (in the life of someone male) contribute towards giving him a gay disposition, or at least make him more inclined to seek the love of men? An alcoholic parent, mother or father; A cold parent, mother or father; Having been in a boys boarding school since about 11. Looking at this article, I have showed both nature and nurture side of the debate. I agree with the nurture side of this debate. I believe that gay people are gay because of their environment and surroundings. Like the boy that said he was made gay because he was surrounded by boys since he was 11 made him have interest in them. However I dont believe this is the right reason for this. I used to go to a girls school and was surrounded by girls from the age of 12 until I left secondary school and I am not a lesbian. But different people feel different about different situations. He mentioned that he didnt get support from parents as they were alcoholics. This can also be the reason as its the environment he is surrounded by. This debate will help gay people in their development as they will get information they need from researchers such as, scientist, psychologist and qualified people. This debate is useful as it creates ownership. If people are the way they are because of the environment, then what makes the environment this? This is because of who we vote for to lead in our communities. Arguments are given to qualify peoples position, so its useful for those people to take part. This will also mean taking responsibilities. Producing arguments helps with the development of the individual. This is because these arguments come from those who are qualified. They will also get money from this and will continue with researching. On the other hand people may feel that they have to take sides, but it all depends on the individual. For example if you have sickle cell anaemia, then there is no nurture part that is affecting your life as you will have to regularly visit the hospital. However the nurture part can affect the development of an individual if they live in a poor country were the transport to getting hospital is hard and treatments are not available. Personality is also something that people debate is either nature or nurture. Here are both of the sides. Personality is Natural This group believes that your personality is result of evolutionary process. You inherit behaviours due to complex interaction of genes. They control your behaviours. So you dont have a free will to act otherwise. Personality is Nurtured This group argues that you dont get your personality inherited. Your mind is a blank slate at your birth. It is your environment, education and culture that make up your behaviours. There are differences on the issue of free will to change your behaviours. Personally I believe that both nature and nurture influenced me on my outcome. Looking at Darwins theory of evolution, he proposed that like physical organs, your personality is result of natural selection for survival of the fittest. You do as your genes dictate. They suggest that fear of death, fear of injury, fear of snakes, shyness, addiction, criminality and sexual orientation are main examples of inheritable behaviours. This debate can take away responsibilities on the individual and make the individual blame it on education, friends and culture. Also gang culture; if people grow up carrying knifes and guns, they are more likely to make their own children do the same thing or even steal. This will make the individual place the blame on the environment, gene or biology.

EIP assignment shopaholic Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

EIP shopaholic - Assignment Example Contemporary culture manifests a shopaholic as a maniac whose behavior is irrational. The research seeks to find out whether a shopaholic is really an irrational character. This is possible through examining the factors that re responsible for the making of a shopaholic. Since this is a social issue, the research shall only deal with secondary data. This is because secondary data is highly likely to employ qualitative analysis in assessing such a phenomenon. This occurs because such an issue requires multiple perspectives in drawing a conclusion. Secondary data, in this sense, traverses articles and books assessing the issue in terms of sociological, economical, business, and psychological perspectives. Secondary data will seek to inform the audience whether excessive shopping is a natural behavior or whether the same is an irrational habit. In turn, the data analysis shall occur qualitatively. This book seeks to analyze the predispositions for shopping as well as provide solutions for the behavior. In this sense, the author examines compulsive buying as a problem rather than as a mere phenomenon. The author explains shopping mania as a habit that develops to cure a different psychological need rather arise to satisfy the actual need of shopping. The text, therefore, manifests over-shopping as a means of distracting oneself from dealing with an essential emotional need such as love. Alternatively, it could be a means of gaining the attention of others if the involved person feels that others do not care about one. Besides, over-shopping could be a product of low self-esteem if the victim engages in impulsive purchases to feel important about oneself (Benson 14). The book, therefore, recommends mindful shopping as a means of countering this problem. It highlights the essence of financial security as a means of leading an enjoyable life in the end. The book entails the philo sophical arguments of merging the

Reflective paper The concept of the Dreaming Essay

Reflective paper The concept of the Dreaming - Essay Example It is the commonality tying all Australian indigenous groups and guiding them through all aspects of life. People see it as an embodiment of creation giving meaning to everything. It is said to establish rules that govern relationships between people, land and every existing thing for the aboriginal people. Edward refers to the dreaming as the time that the aboriginal people came to existence (Bingham, 2004). The dreaming is by far the most prominent views and ideals of the indigenous people despite the vast variety amongst the aboriginal people across Australia. Indigenous Australia was and is a multi-cultural society. Although quite a number of groups across the whole of Australia had their own languages distinct from each other also different life styles and dreaming stories, all of them had teachings concerning the natural and spiritual worlds, proper behaviors among themselves and also the laws that would govern the society(Caruana, 2003). There are three waves of migration into Australia. Edward termed the Ocean Negritos first wave’, with Murrayians being the second, and Carpentarians being the third. All the migrated people groups of the people that migrated had a diversified language. The number Aboriginal tongues were estimated to be 6000 in the entire Australia at that time. The diversity came up with different values and faith in the entire Dreaming era. The importance of Dreaming every bit of life forces the humans, the land, flora, fauna, the ancestral beings, and natural phenomena is inextricably and eternally connected to every other part (Buist, 2011). There are three key aspects of the dreaming. This includes the spiritual beings, kinships and dreaming stories. As seen earlier despite the differences in the languages or the land, they were born in the aboriginal people had common beliefs on the spiritual beings. They did have kinship systems but were not governed by chiefs or sub-chief as opposed to the case that came

Applied linguistics Essay Example for Free

Applied linguistics Essay Applied linguistics 1 History The term applied linguistics dates back at least to the 1940s in the USA when linguists applied analytical methods to the practical problems of producing grammars and phrasebooks and developing language courses. 2 What Is Applied Linguistics? Applied linguistics: (1) was interdisciplinary, drawing on psychology, sociology, and pedagogy as well as theoretical linguistics; (2) included a range of fields including lexicography, stylistics, speech pathol ogy, translation, language policy, and planning among others; (3) performed a mediating function between theory and practice. Ð pplied linguistics must take into consideration the nature of language and the nature of the particular world in which language is used, the beliefs, social institutions, and culture of its users, and how these influence language use. Ideally, the job of an applied linguist is to diagnose a problem in real-world language use, bring the insights of linguistics to bear on the problem, and suggest solutions. 3 Relation of Theory and Practice: the Case of Language Teaching The applied linguist stands at the intersection of theory and practice, but it is not always clear how the applied linguist mediates between the two. This suggests a one-way street in which theory is at the starting point, and the applied linguist directs traffic from theory to practice. Influenced by structuralism in linguistics and by behaviorism in psychology, applied linguists believed that language was a collection of discrete learnable structures, speaking was primary, and learning a language was a matter of correct habit formation. To inculcate correct habits, teachers drilled students incessantly in correct pronunciation and patterned practice of grammatical structures. Under the influence of the theoretical work of Noam Chomsky, applied  linguists saw language learning as a cognitive process of hypothesis testing, in which errors indicated the stage of the language learner’s interlanguage. Instead, knowing a language means knowing how to communicate in the language; it involves acquiring â€Å"communicative competence. † A richer model of the relationship among theory, practice, and applied linguistics sees it as a two-way street in which the applied linguist directs traffic from theory into practice and from practice into theory. Similarly in applied linguistics, practice provides a testing ground for theory,  but it is more than that: real-world language use provides new questions and issues requiring new theories. 4 Recent Range of Inquiry Nevertheless, the central characteristics of applied linguistics remain: (1) focus on contextualized language use; (2) application of theory to practice and vice versa; (3) practical problem-based approach; (4) multidisciplinary perspective. 4. 1 Second language teaching and cross-cultural linguistics 2Accurate description of language use with the ultimate goal of teaching has motivated research in cross-cultural discourse and pragmatics. Concentration on  spoken language, combined with speech act theory among others, has engendered numerous research projects in applied linguistics investigating specific speech acts such as making requests and apologies in different languages and cultures. Applied linguists have examined the development of pragmatic competence in second language learners and the possibilities for teaching pragmatics. 4. 2 Language use in context: contributions of discourse analysis Outside the area of language pedagogy, the burgeoning of discourse analysis has provided a means whereby linguistic insight can be applied to real-world situations. Other institutional and professional settings, too, have come under scrutiny from applied linguists using theoretical constructs to explain how language is used in real-world settings such as commerce, employment, and public services. A field that has developed considerably in recent years in response to societal concerns is the investigation of language and gender. Recent empirical studies have enriched understanding of the interrelationship of language and gender and demonstrated that generalizations about male and female speech are unreliable when the particular communicative contexts in which the speech occurs have not been examined. Other work has examined gender and language cross-culturally and in specific institutional settings. 4. 3 Language maintenance and endangered languages and dialects The work of applied linguists on endangered or minority languages and dialects brings together field linguistics, anthropology, sociolinguistics and education. For example, a longitudinal study of language use and cultural context draws together sociolinguistic research into language use, research in language socialization, and second language acquisition research into educational discourse. It is not only minority languages that are under threat, but also dialects. 2. Contemporary linguistic approaches: Clinical, forensic, computational linguistics ( Ð ²Ã'‹Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã' Ã »Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã °Ã'  )( 29, 30, 25) We have chosen to focus on four relatively popular areas of inquiry: †¢ syntactic parsing; †¢ discourse analysis; †¢ computational morphology and phonology; †¢ corpus-based methods. Parsing and discourse analysis have had the longest continuous history of investigation. Computational morphology and phonology began to grow as a separate discipline in the mid-1980s. Corpus-based approaches were investigated as early as the 1960s. 1 Parsing (Ã'€Ð °Ã ·Ã ±Ã ¾Ã'€) Parsing is the act of determining the â€Å"syntactic structure† of a sentence. The goal is to represent â€Å"who did what to whom† in the sentence. Parsing involves tagging 3the words with an appropriate syntactic category and determining their relationships to each other. Words are grouped into phrase-like constituents, which are arranged into clauses and sentences. Machine translation systems employ parsing to derive representations of the input that are sufficient for transfer from the source to target language at either the syntactic or semantic level. A great deal of attention to the application of syntactic parsing models for language modeling for automatic speech recognition. 2 Discourse Analysis. The area of discourse analysis is concerned with inferring the intended meanings of utterances. In order for the dialogue participants to successfully carry out a dialogue, they must be able to recognize the intentions of the other participant’s utterances, and to produce their responses in such a way that will enable the other participant(s) to recognize their intentions. A recipe is a generic template for performing a particular action. The recipe library contains a collection of generic recipes, and during discourse understanding, the plan inference module attempts to infer utterance intentions and relationships using  information provided by this library. 3 Computational Morphology and Phonology Roughly speaking, the topics can be classified into computational morphology, which treats the analysis of word structure; and computational phonology, which, deals with the changes in sound patterns that take place when words are put together. 4 Corpus-based Methods The word corpus in linguistics is typically a collection of texts. Corpora have been widely used by linguists to identify and analyze language phenomena, and to verify or refute claims about language. However, a corpus also reveals important  quantitative information about the distribution of various language phenomena. 29 Clinical Linguistics Clinical linguistics is the application of the linguistic sciences to the study of language disability. 1 Identifying Linguistic Symptoms Attention has now come to be focused on important symptoms of language disability, and to those aspects of the problem which have been ignored or misdiagnosed. â€Å"Less noticeable† refers to any feature other than the audible qualities of pronunciation, the order and omission of surface grammatical elements, and the actual items which constitute vocabulary. These features exclude  most of the properties of phonological systems, the sense relations between lexical items, the constraints operating on discourse in interaction, and the many ramifications of underlying syntactic structure. All of these play a major part in identifying the various kinds of language disability. The use of a clinical linguistic frame of reference has also enabled people to make progress in identifying disorders of language comprehension. That requires careful testing and the controlling of variables. Disorders of a pragmatic kind, likewise, 4 have often remained undiagnosed, or have been misdiagnosed as problems of a  psychological or social behavioral type. 2 The Role of Clinical Linguistics 2. 2 Description A major area of clinical linguistic research has been to provide ways of describing and analyzing the linguistic behavior of patients, and of the clinicians and others who interact with them. 2. 3 Diagnosis An important aim of clinical linguistics is to provide a classification of patient linguistic behaviors. This can provide an alternative diagnostic model, and one which is more able to provide insights about intervention in cases where there is no clear evidence of any medical condition. 2. 4 Assessment (Ð ¾Ã'†Ð µÃ ½Ã ºÃ °). Clinical linguistics has also been much involved in devising more sophisticated assessments of abnormal linguistic behavior. A diagnosis tells us what is â€Å"wrong† with a patient; an assessment tells us just how seriously the patient is â€Å"wrong. † 2. 5 Intervention The ultimate goal is to formulate hypotheses for the remediation (Ð ¾Ã ·Ã ´Ã ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã »Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ) of abnormal linguistic behavior. Not all aspects of a patient’s problem are directly relevant to the need for linguistically based intervention, clinical linguistics can help clinicians to make an informed judgment about â€Å"what to teach next,† and to monitor the outcome of an intervention hypothesis, as  treatment proceeds. To a large extent, moving well beyond the patient’s language, to include an investigation of the language used by the person(s) carrying out the intervention, the kind of teaching materials used, and the setting in which the interaction takes place. 3 Linguistic Insights The chief aim of clinical linguistics is to provide the clinician with increasing levels of insight and confidence in arriving at linguistic decisions. The three pillars of any clinical linguistic approach: description – grading – intervention. All change needs to be regularly monitored, to demonstrate that progress is being made – this  is the task of assessment. The keeping of comprehensive linguistic records is a further priority, without which the efficacy of intervention can never be demonstrated. Forensic Linguistics Now linguists also have begun examining voice identification, authorship of written documents, unclear jury instructions, the asymmetry of power in courtroom exchanges, lawyer–client communication breakdown, the nature of perjury, problems in written legal discourse, defamation, trademark infringement, courtroom interpretation and translation difficulties, the adequacy of warning  labels, and the nature of tape recorded conversation used as evidence. 1 Trademark Infringement Typically, they respond to requests of attorneys to help them with their law cases. 2 Product Liability 5But the linguist, calling on knowledge of discourse analysis, semantics, and pragmatics, can determine the extent to which the message was clear and unambiguous and point out the possible meanings that the message presents. Once this is done, it is up to the attorney to determine whether or not to ask the linguist to testify at trial. 3 Speaker Identification Linguists have been used by attorneys in matters of voice identification. If the tapes are of sufficient quality, spectographic analysis is possible. If not, the linguist may rely on training and skills in phonetics to make the comparison. 4 Authorship of Written Documents Law enforcement agencies process provide a â€Å"psychological profile† of the person. Calling on knowledge of language indicators of such things as regional and social dialect, age, gender, education, and occupation, linguists analyze documents for broad clues to the identity of the writer. Stylistic analysis centers on a writer’s habitual language features over which the writer has little or no conscious awareness. 5 Criminal Cases Suspects are recorded with court authorized wire taps placed that none of the speakers is aware of being taped, or by using body microphones and engage suspects in conversation. If the law enforcement agency is concerned about the adequacy of the language evidence that they have gathered, they may call on a linguist to make transcripts of the conversations, analyze them. The tape recorded conversation itself points to the use of the other tools of the forensic linguist, including syntax, morphology, semantics, pragmatics, dialectology, and discourse analysis. 3. Discourse analysis (17) Discourse analysis is concerned with the contexts in and the processes through which we use oral and written language to specific audiences, for specific purposes, in specific settings. 1 What Is Discourse? A Preliminary Characterization The big D concerns general ways of viewing the world and general ways of behaving, the small d concerns actual, specific language use. Discourse analysis emphasizes that language is not merely a self-contained system of symbols but a mode of doing, being, and becoming. Discourse research can be divided into 2 major types of inquiries: (1) why some but not other linguistic forms are used on  given occasions and (2) what are the linguistic resources for accomplishing various social, affective, and cognitive actions and interactions. 2 Communicative Motivations for the Selection of Linguistic Forms Language is inseparable from other aspects of our life and that the selection of linguistic forms should be explained in terms of authentic human communicative needs (i. e. , social, interactional, cognitive, affective needs). 2. 1 Context 6One of the first questions is what is happening in this stretch of talk, who the participants are, where they are, and why they are there. Linguistic choices are  systematically motivated by contextual factors. Context is a complex of 3 dimensions: First, the field of social action in which the discourse is embedded. Second, the set of role relations among the participants. And third, the role of language in the interaction. In this view, language is a system of choices made on the basis of a contextual configuration which accounts for field, tenor, and mode. 2. 3 Speech act What kind of speech act utterance is and whether this act is accomplished through direct or indirect means. Speech act theory says that language is used not only to describe things but to do things as well. Further, utterances act on 3 different levels: the literal level (locutionary act), the implied level (illocutionary act), and the consequence of the implied act (perlocutionary act). 2. 4 Scripts / plans Script is to describe the knowledge that we have of the structure of stereotypical event sequences. If such knowledge can be described in a formal way, then we may have a theory of how humans process natural language. 2. 5 Referentiality How entities (Ð »Ã ¸Ã'†Ð °) are referred to in utterances. Some analysts are interested in how referential forms make a stretch of discourse cohesive in form and coherent in meaning. 2. 6 Topicality and thematicity What is an utterance about, what is the starting point of a message, what is the focus of a message. Topic the part of the utterance about which something is said. Prague School linguists developed the functional sentence perspective which says that word order has to do with how informative each element in the utterance is – communicative dynamism, or CD. A sentence begins with elements with the lowest CD and ends with those with the highest CD. Theme is the part of the utterance with the lowest degree of CD. 2. 7 Sequential organization The sequential context of the utterance. Discourse analysts have sought to explain linguistic choices in terms of ethnographic contexts, knowledge structure, rhetorical organization, communicative intentions, textual organization, information management and sequential organization, among others. Discourse Analysis, Linguistics, and More Discourse analysts research various aspects of language not as an end in itself, but as a means to explore ways in which language forms are shaped by and shape the contexts of their use. Further, discourse analysis draws upon not only linguistics, but also anthropology, sociology, psychology, philosophy, cognitive science, and  other disciplines in the humanities and social sciences concerned with human communication. Discourse analysis promotes a view of language which says that 7 Resource Center Saved Recents Uploads My Answers Account Products Home Essays Drive Answers Texty About Company Legal Site Map Contact Us Advertise  ©2016 StudyMode. com HOME   ESSAYS   LINGUISTICS   LINGUISTICS Linguistics Applied linguistics, Discourse analysis, Language By maor87 Apr 17, 2015 6489Words 150Views More info PDF View Text View PAGE8 OF 18 language use is not only reflective of other aspects of our lives but is also constitutive of them. As it draws insights from various disciplines, it also contributes to interfacing linguistics with other domains of inquiries, such that we might now investigate the construction of culture through conversation or program computers to generate interactive texts based on our understanding of the rules and principles of human interaction. It focusses on language as it is used by real people with real intentions, emotions. 4. Linguistics and pragmatics (16) The Puzzle of Language Use: How Do We Ever Understand Each Other? Pragmatics is the study of communication – the study of how language is used. This study is based on the assumption of a division between knowledge of language and the way it is used; and the goal of pragmatics is providing a set of principles which dictate how knowledge of language and general reasoning interact in the process of language understanding, to give rise to different kinds of effects which can be achieved in communication. Pragmatics as the Application of Conversational Principles to Sentence Meanings The starting point for studies in pragmatics is the mismatch between what words â€Å"mean, and what speakers â€Å"mean† by using them. There is the knowledge of  language, which dictates the meanings of words and the ways in which they can combine. This is called the encoded meaning. On the other hand, there are pragmatic principles which enable a hearer to establish some different interpretation – the nonencoded part of meaning. Moreover, given the full array of rhetorical effects such as metaphor, irony, etc. , all of which are uses of expressions in context in some sense, the proposed approach maintains a natural separation between literal uses of words, which are reflected in sentence-meanings, and the various non-literal uses to which they may be put. Knowledge of language: sentence-meanings as partial specifications of interpretation The problem for this â€Å"clean† view is that we use commonsense reasoning, whatever this consists in, not merely in working out why a speaker has said something, but also in establishing what she has said in using the words chosen. The overall picture of interpretation is that grammar-internal principles articulate both syntactic and semantic structure for sentences, a semantic structure for a sentence being an incomplete specification of how it is understood. Pragmatic theory explains how such incomplete specifications are enriched in context to yield  the full communicative effect of an uttered sentence, whether metaphorical, ironical, and so on. The Process of Reasoning: How Do Hearers ever Manage to Choose the Right Interpretation? Grice’s cooperative principle and the conversational maxims According to Grice who was the pioneer of the inferential approach to conversation, there is a general assumption underpinning all utterance interpretation that the interpretation of utterances is a collaborative enterprise. This 8collaborative enterprise is structured by a number of maxims, which speakers are presumed to obey: †¢ The maxim of quality: do not say that for which you lack evidence; do not say what you believe to be false. †¢ The maxim of relevance: be relevant. †¢ The maxim of quantity: make your contribution as informative as is required, but not more so. †¢ The maxim of manner: be perspicuous (avoid obscurity, avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly). Grice articulated the maxims as a means of simplifying the overall account of the relation between the use of language in logical arguments and the conversational use of language. Relevance theory This theory claims to characterize pragmatic phenomena in terms of a single  cognitive concept, that of relevance, replacing the social underpinnings of Grice’s cooperative principle. The principle of relevance Optimal relevance is getting the right balance between size and type of context and amount of information derived. The more information some stimulus yields, the more relevant it is said to become, but the more effort the interpretation of that stimulus requires, the less relevant it will become. And to be minimally relevant a stimulus must lead to at least one non-trivial inference being derived. However interpretation of an act of communication involves two agents – the  speaker and the hearer. The constraint of balancing cognitive effect with cognitive effort will also apply to what the hearer does, but here the task of interpretation is more specific because the hearer has to try and recover what the speaker intended to convey. There are two aspects to the task: 1 Decoding the information associated with an uttered expression– i. e. working out what words have been said and the information that they by definition carry. 2 Making choices which enrich that encoded information to establish what the speaker had intended to convey using those words. Relevance and speech acts  On the speech act view of language, language can best be understood in terms of acts such as these which speakers carry out in using language. The observation by speech act theorists that there is more to language than just describing things is quite uncontentious. Nonetheless, in relevance theory, where the type of implications that can be drawn is quite unrestricted, there is no need of any special discrete categories for such different kinds of act. 5. Linguistic typology and its directions (14) 1 The Diversity of Human Languages The field of linguistic typology explores the diversity of human language in an  effort to understand it. The basic principle behind typology is that one must look at as wide a range of languages as possible in order to grasp both the diversity of 9language and to discover its limits. Typology uses a fundamentally empirical, comparative, and inductive method in the study of language. That is, typologists examine grammatical data from a wide variety of languages, and infer generalizations about language from that data. The basic discovery of typology is that there are limits to linguistic diversity. By comparing diverse languages and discovering universal grammatical patterns, one can attempt to disentangle what is  universal about the grammars languages from what is peculiar to each individual language. 2 The Nature of Language Universals: Word Order One of the first areas of grammar where it was recognized that there are limits to grammatical diversity was the order of words. Word order is probably the most immediately salient difference in grammatical patterns from one language to the next. First, one must examine a sample of languages in order to infer the range of grammatical diversity and its limits. A variety sample collects as broad a range of languages as possible from different geographical areas and different genetic  groupings. Its purpose is to ensure that all possible language types are identified. Second, one must be able to identify phenomena from one language to the next as comparable. The basic problem here is the great variety of grammatical structures used in the world’s languages. The solution to this problem is due to another insight of structuralism: the basic unit of the language is the sign, a form that conventionally expresses or encodes a meaning. The basis for cross-linguistic comparison is a particular linguistic meaning; once that is identified, we may examine the different structures used to encode that meaning. Third, we must identify a range of grammatical patterns or types used to express the linguistic meaning being examined, and classify languages according to what type(s) is / are used in them. For instance, in describing word order of the sentence, the relative position of subject (S), object (O), and verb (V) are used to classify language types. Language structure is determined by factors of language use, such as processing. Language structure is also determined by historical relationships among grammatical patterns, which themselves are due to similarity in meaning. However, these factors do not uniquely determine a language structure, but  compete with each other. Speech communities resolve the competing motivations in arbitrary, language-particular ways; this leads to the diversity of languages found in the world. 3 Language Universals and the Formal Encoding of Meaning Word order universals appear to be motivated in terms of processing of linguistic structure in the act of producing and comprehending language. Word order is a fundamental grammatical property of sentences. 3. 1 Typological markedness and morphological representation 10Some of the earliest work in typology examined the coding of grammatical and  lexical concepts in inflected word forms. The universals go under the name of (typological) markedness. Typological markedness represents an asymmetric pattern of the expression of meaning in grammatical categories across languages. Typological markedness has two central characteristics. First, typological markedness is a property of conceptual categories – e. g. singular and plural – or more precisely, how those conceptual categories are expressed in languages. For number, the singular is unmarked and the plural is marked. Second, unmarked status does not imply that the unmarked member is always left unexpressed and the marked member is always expressed by an overt morpheme. The presence / absence of an overt inflection encoding a conceptual category is only one symptom of markedness, namely structural coding. Typological markedness is found in another aspect of the coding of concepts in words and constructions. Most words in sentences express more than one conceptual category. Pronouns in English, for instance, can express gender as well as number. In English, neither the singular nor plural pronouns express number by a separate inflection; instead number is implicitly expressed by distinct forms such as he and  they. The grammatical coding of additional, cross-cutting, distinctions in the singular but not in the plural is an example of the second symptom of markedness, called behavioral potential. Behavioral potential is also represented by an implicational universal: If the marked member of a category grammatically expresses a crosscutting distinction, so does the unmarked member. A third property of typological markedness points to its underlying explanation. The unmarked member is more frequent than the marked member in language use. Concepts that occur more frequently in language use (e. g. singular) will tend to be expressed by fewer morphemes than less frequently occurring concepts (e. g. plural). This explanation for how meaning is encoded in grammatical form is a processing explanation, called economy or economic motivation. 3. 2 Hierarchies and conceptual spaces We can describe the cross-linguistic distribution of plural markings across classes of pronouns and nouns with the animacy hierarchy. The hierarchy is a succinct way to capture a chain of implicational universals: if any class of words has a plural, then all the classes to the left (or higher) on the hierarchy have a plural. These  patterns are defined over a conceptual space. The conceptual space describes a network of relationships among conceptual categories which exist in the human mind and which constrains how conceptual categories are expressed in grammar. Grammatical change must follow the links in conceptual space. For instance, a plural marking spreads from left to right in the animacy space. Conceptual spaces specify what grammatical category groupings are found in, and how constructions spread (or retreat) over time in their application to grammatical categories. If we compare absence vs. presence of case marking on nouns for the grammatical  11 relations hierarchy, we find that absence of case marking occurs at he higher end of the hierarchy, and presence thereof at the lower end of the hierarchy. The grammatical relations hierarchy also defines the distribution of verb agreement across languages. Verb agreement is associated with the higher end of the grammatical relations hierarchy – the ability to trigger verb agreement indicates the greater behavioral potential of the grammatical relation. These facts demonstrate that the two grammatical relations hierarchies in fact reflect a deeper cross-linguistic universal pattern, found in many different parts of the grammar of languages. 3. 3 Economy and iconicity Economic motivation: the more frequently used category is more likely to be reduced in expression or left unexpressed. Iconic motivation the structure of language reflects the structure of concepts. In the example, each conceptual category, both singular and plural, are overtly encoded in the word form. A subtype of iconicity called isomorphism: the correspondence between forms and meanings. There are two ways in which isomorphism occur in human languages. The first way is in the correspondence of forms and meanings in the combination of words and inflections in a sentence. This is called syntagmatic isomorphism. Economic and iconic motivation compete to produce the range of attested and unattested correspondences between form and meaning. There are 3 predicted patterns. Overt expression is iconically motivated: there is a one-to-one correspondence between meanings and forms. However, it is only moderately economically motivated: it is more economical than expressing a meaning with more than one word or morpheme, but less economical than not expressing the meaning at all. Non-expression of a particular meaning, such as the singular of English nouns like car-O (vs.plural book-s), is economically motivated: zero expression breaks one-to-one correspondence between forms and meanings. The third possible option, zero marking of both singular and plural, corresponds to the absence of expression of the category. This option is economically motivated: either the meaning can be inferred from context, or it is not relevant to the communication. There is another economically motivated pattern of expressing meaning in form: the combination or fusion of discrete meanings in a single form. For example, the suffix -s in English run-s indicates 3rd person subject, singular  subject and present tense, all in a single suffix. In other languages, inflectional categories are found in separate suffixes, as in Turkish. The second type of isomorphism is the correspondence between form and meaning in the inventory of words stored in the mind; paradigmatic isomorphism. 12The possible means of expression of meanings in words are limited by economy and iconicity. Unmotivated possibility: the existence of more than one word with the same meaning, synonymy. It is not iconically motivated. A one-to-one match between a word and a meaning is called monosemy. It isiconic ally motivated but not that economically motivated: we would need very many words to express each discrete meaning. Homonymy is economically motivated, but it is not iconically motivated (many unrelated meanings are expressed by a single form). By far the most common state of affairs in languages, however, is polysemy: the grouping of related meanings under a single form. Polysemy is economically motivated because it subsumes several meanings under a single form, as with homonymy. It is iconically motivated, because the meanings are related. 4 The Dynamic Approach to Language Universals The most common word.